Kṣatriya dominance in Buddhism and Jainism

The concept of Cakravartin, the wheel turning universal monarch, is found in both Āstika sects (the religious sects which accepts the supreme authority of the Veda-s) and also in  the Nāstika sects (the religious sects which rejects the Veda-s) like Buddhism and Jainism.
According to the early Buddhist texts of the Pali cannon, a man with all  32 noble marks of a great man called the Maha-puruṣa lakṣaṇa is destined either to become an  ideal Cakravartin or an enlightened ascetic Buddha. This is recorded in a Buddhist text named Lakkhaṇa sutta. As the Cakravartin, he will have Brāhmaṇa-s as his followers, while as ascetic Buddha, he will have monks as his followers. In another Buddhist text named Mahā-sudassana sutta, the concept of Cakravartin is explained in detail. It is worth noting that only a properly anointed and powerful king from the Kṣatriya or the ruling and warrior class can become a Cakravartin. In this sutta, a divine wheel will appear in front of a properly anointed Kṣatriya and it will then go rolling to many other kingdoms in all directions. Wherever the wheel goes, the king follows it and by reaching the other kingdoms, the king will be welcomed as the supreme sovereign of those kingdoms. This is very similar to the Vedic ritual named Ashvamedha, where a horse is let out to wander in neighboring kingdoms and if it was attacked, the king would have battle with that neighboring kingdom and try to conquer it.

In a Buddhist text named Mahā-parinibbāṇa sutta, it is recorded that the Buddha advised his disciples to treat his body like that of a Kṣatriya Cakravartin after he has passed away. When the Buddha passed away, the funeral relics which contained ashes of the Buddha was distributed to various Kṣatriya clans of northern India. These Kṣatriya clans claimed right to own the relics of the Buddha by stating that the Buddha was a Kṣatriya and they were also Kṣatriya-s.

It is obviously clear that the Kṣatriya-s have an important role to play in the Buddhist tradition. The Buddha even claimed that in whatever way one compares, the Kṣatriya-s are superior to Brāhmaṇa or the priestly class in  a Buddhist text named  Ambattha sutta.

In Jainism too, the Kṣatriya-s have a valuable role. All of the Jain Tīrthaṅkara-s or enlightened ones (Jain version of Buddha-s) took birth only into the Kṣatriya families. It is stated in a Jain text named Kalpasūtra that the last Jain Tīrthaṅkara Mahavira was first born into the womb of a Brāhmaṇa woman.  But then, the Gods transplanted the embryo from the Brāhmaṇa woman and placed it inside the womb of a Kṣatriya woman by stating that the  Tīrthaṅkara-s should only take birth into superior families like that of Kṣatriya-s and not to the Brāhmaṇa families. The text places the Brāhmaṇa-s with the people of lower ranks. The same text also mentions about Cakravartin concept. Like the Buddhist version, the Jain version also equates the ideal Chakravatin monarch with the enlightened ascetic Tīrthaṅkara . However, the Jain version does not emphasize on the noble marks of a great man like the Buddhist version. Instead, the Jain version states that the mother of Cakravartin or Tīrthaṅkara would see fourteen auspicious dreams before becoming pregnant with  a Cakravartin or Tīrthaṅkara in her womb.

So there existed the doctrine of  two paths in Buddhism and Jainism. It is important to note that in both Buddhist and Jain traditions, it is stated that the noble marks and dreams were read by learned Vedic Brāhmaṇa-s.

So in a nutshell, the Nāstika sects like Buddhism and Jainism should be viewed as  Kṣatriya revisions questioning the Brāhmaṇa authority of its times.  The Kṣatriya-s obviously patronized the Vedic Brāhmaṇa-s and were the guardians of Vedic culture. For this reason both Buddhism and Jainism  did not move far away from the core Vedic culture. But they did reject the authority of Veda-s and Vedic rituals.

Vedic culture and the Buddha

Prince Siddhārta Gautama was born into the Shākya tribe of Vedic Kṣatriya-s who ruled a kingdom with the same name which was situated in the Himalayan foothills. As a Shākyan  prince, Siddhārta grew with with all the royal luxuries and without knowing sorrow and suffering. At a later stage of his life, he renounced all his royal luxuries to become an ascetic. He then attained enlightenment through meditation and from there onwards he was known as the 'Buddha' which literally means the 'awakened one' and as 'Tathāgata'  which translates as 'thus gone one' or 'thus come one'. As the Buddha, Siddhārta gained many disciples and admirers through his wise teachings.

Some people claim that the Buddha completely rejected the Vedic culture in which he was brought up. They further state that his teachings were against the Vedic culture and concepts.
 But in reality, he did not completely reject his Vedic culture and heritage. Many of his teachings included elements which are found in the Vedic texts. The concepts like Dharma, Karma, Mōkṣa or Nirvāṇa , reincarnation etc which were included in the teachings of the Buddha are found in the Vedic texts. Although these concepts were still developing in the early Vedic era, they further evolved and and became widespread by the time of later Vedic period. Many of the later Vedic texts like the early Upaniṣad-s  certainly predate the time of the Buddha. One of the early Buddhist text named Tēvijja sutta which belongs to the Pali cannon, the earliest available Buddhist corpus, talks about Vedic Brāhmaṇa-s who were well versed in Upaniṣad-s  like Cāndogya, Taittirīya etc.

In addition to these Vedic concepts, the Buddha often compared the Nirvāṇa (supreme goal or liberation in Buddhism) with the Vedic concept of attaining oneness with the Brahman or the supreme absolute according to the Vedic texts as it is evident from the early Buddhist texts of Pali cannon. For example, I cite a Buddhist text named Kandaraka sutta , where the phrase 'become Brahman' or 'Brahmabhūta' occurs. This phrase occurs in other texts as well. It must be noted that there exists various groups of demigods named Brahma-s inhabiting various heavenly realms in Buddhist mythology. Some argue that the Brahma mentioned in the cited phrase refers to the demigod Brahma-s instead of the Vedic absolute Brahman. I think this is not correct, since in another Buddhist text named Paṭhamarāga sutta of Itivuttaka, the Buddha himself is said to have become Brahman. This could only refer to the absolute Brahman since in various texts like Brahma-nimantanika sutta , the demigod Brahmas are said to be inferior beings compared to the Buddha and they even praised the Buddha. So the Brahman of Brahmabhūta refers to the absolute because the Buddha obviously would have not become a demigod Brahma who is inferior to him. It is also interesting to note that the term Brahman is synonymous with the term Dharma , the teachings or virtuous path of the Buddha which reflects the Buddha himself, as explained in Vakkali sutta . For example in
Aggañña sutta , the Buddha states that to become Dharma is to become Brahman. Also in Maha-sīhanāda sutta , the Buddha equates the Dharmacakra , the wheel of Dharma  with Brahmacakra, the wheel of Brahman. Dharmacakra is the most important symbol of the Buddha's teachings. Further in Janussoni Brāhmaṇa sutta , the Buddha states that the Āryā-aṣṭāṅgamārga or  the noble eight-fold path which leads to Nirvāṇa is synonymous with Dharmayāna , the vehicle or path of Dharma which is same as Brahmayāna, the vehicle or path of Brahman. So in some instances, Brahman obviously refers to the Vedic absolute which is synonymous with Dharma . Interestingly, the term Brahmabhūta also occurs in Bhagavad Gīta 18.54 which clearly refers to the union with absolute Brahman.

Some may argue that the Buddha taught doctrine of Anātman which refers to selflessness and rejection of Ātman through Śūnyata , the void or emptiness. According to the Vedic doctrine, there is Ātman or self and it is identical to the absolute Brahman. So the argument is that this Śūnyatā-Aātman doctrine of the Buddha contradicts with the Vedic doctrine of Ātman -Brahman. However, the phrase from Kandaraka sutta which is cited above has mention of Ātman or self becoming Brahman, which is similar to the Vedic doctrine of Ātman equal to Brahman. So in my opinion, Śūnyata-Anātman would only refer to the removal of self like 'I' or 'Me' and establishing the oneness with the 'real' Ātman which is identical to the absolute Brahman. This is supported by advise of the Buddha to his disciples from Maha-parinibbāna sutta to take refuge unto their selves and on Dharma which is in turn identical to Brahman as explained above. So according to the Buddha, there was definitely a concept of 'real' self or Ātman which is nothing else than the absolute Brahman, while Śūnyata -Anātman refers to rejection or emptiness of an external or separate  Ātman which is different from the absolute Brahman . Also, even according to the Vedic texts, there is no  separate  or  external self once it attains oneness with Brahman . So it is not right to claim that the Buddha rejected the Vedic concept of Ātman -Brahman completely. However, Buddha did reject the concept of 'Saguṇa' Brahman or the manifested form of absolute Brahman and had ideas similar to 'Nirguṇa' or unmanifested absolute Brahman. It is also  true that the Buddha denied the authority of the Vedas and Vedic rituals. But in Sundarika sutta , the Buddha interpreted Vedic rituals as symbolic and internal. This  metaphorical description of Vedic ritulas are in fact already found in the Vedic texts like Cāndogya Upaniṣad 5.4 onwards.

So from all these evidences we can conclude that the Buddha did not reject the core tenets of Vedic texts. But he did reform certain Vedic cultural traits such as Vedic rituals, supreme authority of the Vedas etc. So it is not correct to state that  the Buddha's teachings were completely against Vedic culture as claimed by some people. Although gradually, new sects and divisions came up within Buddhism,with new concepts and elements which  were distinct from Vedic culture. But they still adhered to the core tenets of early teachings of Buddha as found in the Pali cannon, which are strictly related to the Vedic elements.

Agni, the light of Vedic civilization

Agni, the God of fire is perhaps the most important Vedic divinity. Without use of fire, none of the important Vedic rituals are possible. In Ṛg Veda Agni does not only represent fire, but also light. Agni kills the darkness with his light in Ṛg Veda  5.14.4. Agni is also identified as the Sun shining in the sky in Ṛg Veda 10.88.11.

Agni is also closely associated with Tapas or ‘heat’ referring to extensive ascetic practices. Indeed, in creation hymn of Ṛg Veda 10.129.3, it is stated that the whole universe was produced from the Tapas.
Agni is the blazing energy which fills the universe. Indeed, he is called Vaiśvānara for the same reason. Vaiśvānara is in turn identified with Puruṣa or the whole universe personified as a cosmic man from Ṛg Veda 10.90 in Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa 10.6.1.11.

Puruṣa is also called on as Viśvakarman or as Prajāpati or the creator. In Vedic rituals, the fire altar which is built up represents the body of Prajāpati. By building up the fire altar and performance of Vedic rituals, the restoration of fragmented Prajāpati takes place as stated in Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa 6.1.2.21, Pañcavimśa Brāhmaṇa 21.4.2, Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa 3.9.81 etc. This could be ritualistically viewed as reunifying the core essence of the whole universe, since Prajāpati represents whole universe or manifested Brahman in Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa 7.3.1.42.

Ṛg Veda 2.1.3-7 and  5.3.1-3 identifies various deities as forms of Agni and it is stated that all the deities are centered in Agni. All the deities are also unified with association of Agni in Ṛg Veda 6.9.5. Agni was a unifying factor among the Vedic deities, also acted as ‘connector’ between Vedic deities and men in ritual, since it is Agni who carried the oblations to the deities.

Agni is also called as Jātavedas, or knower of births. Since the Vedic sacrificial fire is maintained generation after generation, Agni indeed knows all the births happening within a Vedic family.
Another epithet of Agni is Apām Napāt, or the Child of waters. Apām Napāt is mentioned as creator deity in Ṛg Veda  2.35.8, Apām Napāt also finds place in Iranian Avesta Yašt 19.52 as the creator deity, apart from the supreme God Ahura Mazdā, possibly hinting at predominance of Apām Napāt during earlier Indo-Iranian period.

This concept of Apām Napāt has parallel in the concept of Hiraṇyagarbha which arose in later parts of the Ṛg Veda . Hiraṇyagarbha is the golden cosmic womb from which Prajāpati or the creator representing the whole universe took birth. Hiraṇyagarbha floated on cosmic waters representing non-existence before it gave birth to the existence represented by Prajāpati from Ṛg Veda  10.121.

Hiraṇyagarbha is in fact a prototype of Agni. Like Hiraṇyagarbha Agni is also called as a garbha or womb in Ṛg Veda 1.70.2, also in Atharva Veda 5.25.7 where Agni is the womb of everything.  Also like Hiraṇyagarbha, Apām Napāt is described golden in color at Ṛg Veda  2.35.10. In Ṛg Veda 10.121.7 there is also special mention made of Agni in association with garbha which floated on the primeval waters. Also as noted before, Prajāpati who was born from Hiraṇyagarbha is also closely linked with Agni ritualistically.

The Vedic association of Agni with waters also later transformed into the legend of Skanda or Karttikeya. As the popular legend narrated in the Purāṇa-s  goes, it was Agni who dropped Śiva’s seed in the waters which later transformed into Skanda. In another version of Skanda’s birth found in Vana Parva of Mahabharata, Skanda is son of Agni himself.

So to conclude the matter presented here, Agni is by far the most important Vedic divinity who had various epithets and functions, going back to the Indo-Iranian and perhaps Indo-European period. Agni was a unifying factor among all the Vedic deities. The legends associated with Agni kept transforming in Vedic and post-Vedic era, giving rise to new concepts like Hiraṇyagarbha, Prajāpati and birth legend of Skanda.